Value Mapping Methods

1. Brown, G. and P. Reed. 2009.  Public Participation GIS:  A new method for national forest planning. Foreest Science 55(2):166-182. 

This article: 1) reviews previous applications of landscape value mapping methods across a variety of planning applications; 2) describes the participatory, internet mapping method used in 3 studies of national forests in Arizona and Oregon in 2006 and 2007; 3) presents and evaluates the results to show likely future implementation constraints; and 4) based on lessons learned, describes a recommended PPGIS protocol for national forest planning.

2. Beverly, Jennifer L., Uto, Kinga, Wilkes, J. and P. Bothwell. 2008. Assessing spatial attributes of forest landscape values: an internet-based participatory mapping approach.  Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 38:289-303. Also available from jbeverly@nrcan.gc.ca.

The paper GIS method of mapping landscape values (Brown and Reed) is adapted to the internet for a region in Alberta, Canada, primarily to assist forest fire management planning. This manuscript provides a summary of various spatial methods that describe the frequency and distribution of landscape values in the study area.

3. Brown, G. 2005.  Mapping Spatial Attributes in Survey Research for Natural Resource Management:  Methods and Applications. Society & Natural Resources 18(1):1-23. 

This is the primary article on landscape value mapping methods.  The author describes spatial measures of landscape values and place attributes developed and used in five surveys of the general public in Alaska (1998-2003). The author reviews the spatial data collection rationale behind these studies, as well as design concepts, methods, and implementation issues for a general public survey that includes a spatial mapping component.  Other topics covered include operationalization of theory, map and materials selection, digitizing and data entry concerns, and spatial data analysis tools.

4. Brown, G. 2006.   Mapping Landscape Values and Development Preferences:  A Method for Tourism and Residential Development Planning.  International Journal of Tourism Research 8:101-113.

The author presents a method for measuring and analyzing landscape values and tourism and residential development preferences.  Survey data from Kangaroo Island, South Australia are analyzed to determine the relative strength of landscape values as predictors of place-specific development preferences.  Results indicate tourism development preferences are most closely associated with recreation, economic, and scenic landscape values while residential development preferences are most closely associated (inversely) with recreation, economic, and learning values.  Preferences for “no development” are most closely associated with wilderness, therapeutic, and intrinsic landscape values.  A simple development index is generated from the spatial data that ranges from positive (acceptable development) to negative (no development) values.

5. Raymond, C. and G. Brown. 2006.  A method for assessing protected area allocations using a typology of landscape values.  Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 49(6):797-812.

The authors use spatial survey data from the Otways region of Victoria, Australia to present a method that differentiates between public and private lands based on locally perceived landscape values.  Discriminant analysis is used to predict prospective national park expansion areas.  Results indicate survey respondents hold more indirect and less tangible values for national parks and reserves, and more direct use values for private lands.  There was moderate agreement between public and expert-derived national park boundaries.  The authors argue that mapping local landscape values, when combined with expert assessment, can strengthen protected areas planning and management.

6. Raymond, C., and G. Brown. 2007. A spatial method for assessing resident and visitor attitudes toward tourism growth and development. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 15(5):1-22.

The authors compare attitudes toward tourism development in the Otways region of Victoria, Australia, using traditional survey research questions with spatial preferences for development collected in the same survey.  Results from the survey show conditional support for tourism growth and development in the Otway Hinterland and along the Otway Coast while results from spatial attribute data show there are place-specific differences in “acceptable development” and “inappropriate development” preferences. The authors argue the spatial attribute method is an inclusive process that can potentially bridge pro-development and anti-development responses that emerge during community consultation by providing development preference data that is scaleable to both local and regional scales.

7. Brown, G. 2003.  A Method for Assessing Highway Qualities to Integrate Values in Highway Planning.  Journal of Transport Geography 11(4):271-283.

The author presents a survey methodology for mapping six intrinsic highway qualities as well as special places to help select and prioritize highways for scenic byways nomination.  Analysis of data from the 2001 statewide survey of Alaska residents is used to develop the concept of a highway experience opportunity spectrum and potential experience opportunity classes.  With knowledge about the spatial locations of intrinsic highway qualities, transportation planners can make informed choices to maintain or alter the set of highway experience opportunities associated with a highway system.

8. Tyrvainen, L., Makinen, K., and J. Schippperjin.  2006.  Tools for mapping social values of urban woodlands and other green areas.  Landscape and Urban Planning  Volume/Issue TBA.

The authors present a simple method to describe the social values of green areas in urban areas for strategic planning purposes.  Using a mail survey in Helsinki, Finland, general attitudes toward the benefits of green areas were measured.  Local residents were asked to identify on a map provided positive qualities such as beautiful scenery, peace and quiet, and the feeling of being in a forest, as well as negative qualities.  The results were mapped in GIS with the most important features associated with favourite places being tranquillity, the feeling of being in a forest, and naturalness.

9. McIntyre, N., Yuan, M.,  Payne, R.J., and J. Moore.  2004.  Development of a values-based approach to managing recreation on Canadian Crown lands.  Proceedings of the second International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitor Flows in Recreational and Protected Areas, June 16–20, 2004, Rovaniemi, Finland.

The paper describes an approach that combined both interpretive approaches to data collection (narratives and value mapping) and survey methods in the elicitation of values attached to a working forest. In terms of methods, focus group participants were asked to mark ‘special places’ and associated values directly onto 1:50,000 maps of the study area in the Dog River/Matawin area of North Western Ontario.  Visitors to the area were asked to take photographs during their trips, and to record the subject, location, importance, and positive or negative effect on her/his experience.  Photographs and photo-logs were analysed for expression of values. Finally, a survey was administered (n=487) that asked respondents (residents and visitors) to rate six general forest values and more specific values extracted from analysis of the focus groups.

10. Gunderson, K., Watson, A., Nelson, and J. Titre.  2004.  Mapping place meanings on the Bitterroot National Forest – a landscape-level assessment of personal and community values as input to fuel hazard reduction treatments.  BEMRP Research Project Summary.  Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute. http://leopold.wilderness.net/unpublished/UNP105.pdf

The study used qualitative research methods focusing on local community knowledge to capture as much context as possible about the relationship people have to the Bitterroot Front, Bitterroot National Forest, Montana..  Twelve semi-structured interviews, nine key informant interviews, and two focus groups were used to collect data (33 individuals total).  The interviews included information pertaining to important places visited and places seldom or never visited, but important on the Bitterroot Front, types of recreation and work activities at each specific place, and responses to “why they value” specific places.  Respondents were also asked to circle and rate, in order of importance, the top three specific places they identified on a map provided by the researchers.  Values “hotspots” were identified as areas where there was high incidence of respondent site selection. Site selections fell into 3 classifications for specificity: specific, medium, and broad.  Outside of a few respondents who selected the entire Bitterroot Front as being important, places “not selected” were typically lacking road and trail access.

1. Rolston, H. and J. Coufal. 1991.  A forest ethic and multivalue forest Management.  Journal of Forestry 89(4):35-40.

The authors challenge the traditional value orientation of the forestry profession and argue for expanding the five statutory public forest values to include both human and biotic elements.  The typology of ten forest values advocated by the authors include life support, economic, scientific, recreation, esthetic, wildlife, biotic diversity, natural history, spiritual, and intrinsic value.  This value typology become the reference standard for the Brown and Reed (2000) typology.

2. Brown, G. and P. Reed. 2000. Validation of a forest values typology for use in national forest planning. Forest Science 46(2):240-247.

The authors present data from a survey of Alaska residents in the Chugach National Forest plan revision process to validate a forest values typology inspired by Rolston and Coufal (1991) and to examine the relationship between attitudes toward forest management actions and forest values.  Key findings indicate that: (1) survey respondents were able to identify with 13 distinct forest values based on a modified Rolston and Coufal (1991) forest value typology, (2) no obvious latent structure of variables or constructs emerged from factor analysis of the 13 forest values indicating that the forest value typology may not be easily simplified without compromising the exclusiveness of measured forest values, (3) small, but statistically significant correlations were found between attitudes toward specific forest management practices such as logging and mining and held forest values, and (4) forest values are modestly predictive of respondent preferences for specific forest planning decisions.

3. Tarrant, M.A., Cordell, H.K., and  G.T. Green. 2003. PVF: A Scale to Measure Public Values of Forests. Journal of Forestry 101(6):24-30. Sept. 2003

The authors present a 12 item scale for measuring the relative importance of national forest resources—both economic and noneconomic—based on data collected from the National Survey on Recreation and the Environment.  The scale supports the existence of three latent factors: protection, amenity, and outputs.  The scale had moderate levels of internal reliability and demonstrated predictive validity. Protection values were significantly higher for women, urban residents, and younger respondents. The scale differed from the Brown and Reed value typology in that it did not include scale items that measured spiritual, cultural, historic, or intrinsic values for forests.

4. Manning, R., Valliere, W., and B. Minteer. 1999. Values, ethics, and attitudes toward national forest management: An empirical study. Society and Natural Resources12:421–36.

The authors measured environmental values and ethics and their relationships to attitudes toward national forest management based on a survey of Vermont residents concerning management of the Green Mountain National Forest. Survey findings indicated respondents (1) favor nonmaterial values of national forests, (2) subscribe to a diversity of environmental ethics, including anthropocentric and bio-/ecocentric, and (3) support emerging concepts of ecosystem management. Environmental values and ethics explained approximately 60% of the variation in attitudes toward national forest management.  The values scale differed from the Brown and Reed value typology in that it did not include therapeutic, subsistence, future, and intrinsic values and contained new values labeled intellectual, education, and moral/ethical.  Historic and cultural values were combined in the Manning et al. scale.

5. Studley, J.F.  2005.  Sustainable knowledge systems and resource stewardship: in search of ethno-forestry paradigms for the indigenous peoples of eastern Kham.  Doctoral thesis.  Loughborough University. 481 p.  http://hdl.handle.net/2134/2101

The author uses the forest values typology developed by Brown and Reed (2000) with indigenous peoples of the Kham region in Tibet.  In field trials of the values typology, individuals were asked to distribute 100 pins representing the total value of the forest across a set of 13 paper circles on the basis of the relative importance of each value to them.  The method appeared to work reasonably well with all values used, although the list of forest values was later expanded to include more culturally-bound forest values.  The use of the forest values typology was a small part of a larger investigation to cognitively map forest values among Tibetan minority nationalities, to map their spatial distribution, and to correlate changes in forest values with cultural and biophysical phenomena. 

6. Raymond, C., and G. Brown. 2007. The relationship between place attachment and landscape values: Toward Mapping Place Attachment. Applied Geography.  27:89-111.

The authors examine the external validity of a two-dimensional place attachment scale (Williams and Vaske, 2003) in Australia and its relationship with place-based landscape values.  The place attachment scale and landscape value measures were included in a mail survey of residents and visitors to the Otways region (Victoria, Australia).  Regression analysis is used to show that landscape importance values, especially spiritual and wilderness values, are significant predictors of the scale-based measure of place attachment. The relationship between a map-based measure of place attachment and mapped landscape values is explored. Spatial cross-correlation and regression analyses show that aesthetic, recreation, economic, spiritual, and therapeutic values spatially co-locate with special places and thus likely contribute to place attachment. The authors argue that survey mapping of landscape values and special places provides a reasonable proxy for scale-based measures of place attachment while providing richer, place-based information for land use planning.

7. Alessa, N., Kliskey, A., and G. Brown. 2008. Social-ecological hotspots mapping: a spatial approach for identifying coupled social-ecological space. Landscape and Urban Planning. 85(1):27-39.

The authors present a method for identifying coupled social-ecological hotspots, spatial areas of convergence between high human and ecological values. Using data from mapped landscape values in Alaska and a measure of net primary productivity, the authors overlay social space with ecological space in the same region. Values hotspots (and warm spots) are determined using kernel density estimation methods. The potential value of social-ecological systems mapping is highlighted using an example of land use planning under the Coastal Zone Management Act.

8. Brown, G. 2008.  A theory of urban park geography.  Journal of Leisure Research 40(4): 589-607.

A theory of urban park values is presented using the theory of island biogeography as an analogue.  Viewing urban parks as islands within a virtual sea of development, the theory predicts that two factors—the size of park and distance from concentrated human habitation—influence the diversity of park values.  All other factors being equal, the diversity of human values for parks will increase with park size while the diversity of park values will decrease the further one moves from concentrated areas of human habitation.  Spatial data from a study of Anchorage, Alaska residents indicate a relatively strong relationship between park size and the diversity of park values and a weak, inverse relationship between distance from domicile and diversity of park values.  The results also indicate that: 1) park value diversity differs by NRPA classification with the smallest classification—neighborhood parks—having the lowest value diversity and natural resource area parks having the highest value diversity, 2) neighborhood parks contain significantly higher social/cultural values than community or natural resource area parks, and 3) community and natural resource area parks contain significantly higher natural and wildlife values than neighborhood parks.  The implications of the theory for urban area park planning are discussed.

9. Nielsen-Pincus, Max. In review. Mapping landscape values: An analysis of methods and geographical associations among values at the landscape scale. Available from Max Nielsen-Pincus, Director of the Crooked River Watershed Council. mnielsen-pincus@vandals.uidaho.edu.

The author uses a landscape values typology to investigate how values are mapped on the landscape in three counties of Idaho and Oregon and compares empirically collected values data to environmental values theory.  The author examines the spatial scale at which participants collectively map regions of value and the geographic associations between different values in the typology.  The results demonstrate that a given area can offer multiple values to communities.  Furthermore, when geographically operationalized the landscape values typology can be divided primarily into two categories: material (socioeconomic quality) and postmaterial (personal/environmental quality) values.  The findings reflect on the need for land use planners, natural resource managers, and local decision makers to facilitate both material and postmaterial values in their decisions. 

10. Black, Anne E. and Adam Liljeblad. Working paper. Mapping place values on public lands. Available from Anne Black, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Missoula, MT. aeblack@fs.fed.us

This paper presents a theoretically-based method for integrating social and ecological data in a GIS format usable by ecological models. The authors collected social data on place attachment by asking attendees at public meetings to draw on hard-copy maps. Information was digitized with attributes and explanations populating the text fields to create GIS datasets designating important social places to allow simulation modeling between management actions and place values. By creating spatial data representing local residents’ place attachment and integrating this with a vegetation simulator, the method provide managers and the public the ability to consider the longer-term consequences of alternative fuels, fire and land management activities on both social and ecological values.

1. Brown, G. and L. Alessa.  2005.  A GIS-based Inductive Study of Wilderness Values.  International Journal of Wilderness 11(1):14-18.

The authors present the results of spatial analysis of wilderness values in Alaska.  Using data from two regional planning studies, perceived landscape values from inside and outside wilderness areas were compared to determine if proportionate value differences exist between wilderness and non-wilderness areas. Multiple regression analysis was used to confirm the results and determine the relative strength of general landscape values as predictors of wilderness value.  Results indicate that wilderness areas reflect values associated with indirect, intangible or deferred human uses of the landscape—life sustaining, intrinsic, and future values while landscape values outside wilderness areas reflect more direct, tangible, and immediate uses of the landscape—economic, recreation, and subsistence values.  These results are consistent with national survey results on wilderness values for the National Wilderness Preservation System.  The authors suggest that landscape value perceptions can be used to complement GIS-based wilderness inventory methods.

2. Brown, G., C. Smith, L. Alessa, and A. Kliskey. 2004.  A comparison of perceptions of biological value with scientific assessment of biological importance.  Applied Geography 24(2):161-180.

The authors assess the spatial coincidence of local perceptions of biological value identified in a survey of Alaska residents with biologically significant areas identified by scientists from a marine conservation workshop.  The results indicate a moderate degree of spatial coincidence between local values and scientific assessment with obvious geographic areas of agreement and disagreement in the study area of Prince William Sound, Alaska.  The authors argue that incorporation of local perceptions of biological importance can complement and strengthen scientific biological assessments and they propose an iterative conservation planning process that includes both methodologies. 

3. Reed, P. and G. Brown. 2003. Values Suitability Analysis: A Methodology for Identifying and Integrating Public Perceptions of Forest Ecosystem Values in National Forest Planning.  Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 46(5):643-658.

The authors present a planning methodology called "values suitability analysis" (VSA) that combines the features of expanded public participation with a rational, analytic framework for incorporating human values into forest plan decision making. The VSA methodology provides a means to evaluate and compare how “logically consistent” potential management prescriptions (set of activities) are with publicly held forest values.  Based on a spatial inventory of landscape values, the VSA methodology constructs a numerical rating, or set of ratings, for each management prescription and landscape value interaction.  These ratings are used to determine (1) which management prescription is most compatible with the dominant landscape value within a given management area, as well as (2) the marginal difference in overall compatibility between alternative management prescriptions.  The VSA methodology can be used to generate forest plan alternatives or serve as a benchmark to evaluate different forest plan alternatives.  The authors believe adoption of VSA may be hampered by lack of trust and other institutional issues.

4. Brown, G., P. Reed, and C.C. Harris. 2002. Testing a Place-Based Theory for Environmental Evaluation: an Alaska Case Study.  Applied Geography. 22(1):49-77.

The authors test Norton and Hannon’s (1997) theory of environmental evaluation that is based on a commitment to place or “sense of place” using community-based survey data collected as part of the planning process for the Chugach National Forest (Alaska).  The theory suggests that humans engage in geographic discounting (humans like to be near positive place attributes and far from negative place attributes) which is influenced by sense of place.  The empirical evidence provides moderate support for the theory that community place attachment is related to distance and intensity of environmental valuation, i.e., how individuals within a community perceive landscape values around their community.  Given the results, the authors highlight the importance of community-based environmental analysis.

1. Brown, G., C. Raymond. 2006. Mapping Spatial Attributes for Conservation and Tourism Planning: A Survey of Residents and Visitors. CRC for Sustainable Tourism. Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia. http://www.crctourism.com.au. ISBN: 192070476 0